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It can be subdivided into paraculture the norms, rules and conventions valid for an entire society , diaculture norms, rules and conventions valid for a particular group within the society, such as a club, a firm or a regional entity and idioculture the culture of an individual person as opposed to other individuals Ammann cf.

However, the borderlines between cultural systems or sub-systems are notoriously difficult to define. A culture cannot simply be equated with a language area. For instance, the linguistic behaviour of the Scots and the English will be different in some situations and very similar in others. Or again, Dutch and Germans from the regions along their common border may differ in language but have similar value systems. In modern multi- cultural societies we cannot even say that a town or a street represents a single homogeneous culture.

Culture is not something people have; it is some- thing that fills the spaces between them. And culture is not an exhaustive description of anything; it focuses on differences, differ- ences that can vary from task to task and group to group. You just patch on some new lexical items and grammatical forms and continue listening and talking. Other things are more difficult, but with a little effort the differences from one language to another can be bridged.

But some things that come up strike you with their difficulty, their complexity, their inability to fit into the resources you use to make sense out of the world. These things — from lexical items through speech acts up to fundamental notions of how the world works — are called rich points.

Agar This means that a translator has to be very aware of the rich points relevant to a particular translation task between the groups or sub-groups on either side of the languaculture barrier. Translating as a Text-Processing Action We have seen how translating is defined as translational action based on some kind of text. The proportion of verbaliz ed to non- verbalized text elements in a particular type of situation is considered to be culture-specific.

The role of the source text in functionalist approaches is radically differ- ent from earlier linguistic or equivalence-based theories. In translation, the chosen informational items are then transferred to the target culture using the presentation the translator believes appropriate for the given purpose.

Specific aspects of the role and range of source texts will be dealt with in the next chapters. Basic Aspects of Skopostheorie The theory of action outlined in the previous chapter provides the foundation for Hans J. In addition to the works mentioned earlier Vermeer , , a the theory is explained in detail in the book co-authored by Vermeer and Reiss in In the following sections we will take a closer look at some of the basic concepts presented in the book, placing particular emphasis on the relation- ship between the general theory Vermeer and the specific theories Reiss.

According to Skopostheorie the theory that applies the notion of Skopos to translation , the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose Skopos of the overall translational action. This fits in with intentionality being part of the very definition of any action. To say that an action is intentional is to presuppose the existence of free will and a choice between at least two possible forms of behaviour.

One form of behaviour is nevertheless held to be more appropriate than the other in order to attain the intended goal or purpose Skopos. In his De inventione 2. Nevertheless, the term Skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text. Apart from the term Skopos, Vermeer uses the related words aim, pur- pose, intention and function. Aim and purpose are thus relative concepts. For ex- ample, somebody goes out to buy a Basque grammar purpose 1 in order to learn the language purpose 2 in order to be able to translate Basque short stories purpose 3 in order to make Basque literature known to other language communities aim example adapted from Vermeer a The term intention is also equated with function of the action Reiss and Vermeer In order to avoid this conceptual confusion, I have proposed a basic distinc- tion between intention and function Nord [] f.

Yet the best of intentions do not guarantee a perfect result, particularly in cases where the situations of the sender and the re- ceiver differ considerably. In accordance with the model of text-bound interaction, the receivers use the text with a certain function, depending on their own expectations, needs, previous knowledge and situational condi- tions.

This distinction is particularly useful in translation, where the sender and receiver by definition belong to different cultural and situational set- tings. Vermeer briefly discusses my distinction but does not take it up cf. As a general rule he considers the teleological con- cepts aim, purpose, intention and function to be equivalent cf. Reiss and Vermeer , subsuming them under the generic concept of Skopos.

Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this pur- pose. Vermeer a, my translation Most translational actions allow a variety of Skopoi, which may be related to each other in a hierarchical order.

This rule is intended to solve the eternal dilemmas of free vs faithful translation, dynamic vs formal equivalence, good interpreters vs slavish trans- lators, and so on. What it does not mean is that a good translation should ipso facto conform or adapt to target-culture behaviour or expectations, although the concept is often misunderstood in this way.

This means that the receiver, or rather the addressee, is the main factor determining the target-text Skopos. What it does not mean, however, is that this strictly excludes philological or literal or even word-for-word translations. The theory does not state what the principle is: this must be de- cided separately in each specific case. Yet the answer is fairly obvious. A client needs a text for a particular purpose and calls upon the translator for a translation, thus acting as the initiator of the trans- lation process.

In an ideal case, the client would give as many details as possible about the purpose, explaining the addressees, time, place, occasion and medium of the intended communication and the function the text is intended to have. Here we have to clarify a translation problem. We find both terms used in works by mostly German functionalist translation scholars writing in English or trans- lated into English.

It im- plicitly compares the translator with a barrister who has received the basic information and instructions but is then free as the responsible expert to carry out those instructions as they see fit. In the present book we will thus use the term translation brief wherever appropriate.

The translation brief specifies what kind of translation is needed. This is why the initiator or the person playing the role of initiator who might also be the translator actually decides on the translation Skopos, even though the brief as such may not be explicit about the conditions. Evidently, the Skopos often has to be negotiated between the client and the translator, especially when the client has only a vague or even incorrect idea of what kind of text is needed for the situation in question.

Clients do not normally bother to give the translator an explicit translation brief; not being experts in intercultural communication, they often do not know that a good brief spells a better translation.

Note that the translation brief does not tell the translator how to go about their translating job, what translation strategy to use, or what translation type to choose. In many cases, of course, an experienced translator is able to infer the Skopos from the translational situation itself.

As Vermeer puts it, unless otherwise indicated, it will be assumed in our culture that for instance a technical article about some astronomical discovery is to be translated as a technical article for astronomers [ This leads us to another, more specific aspect of Skopostheorie, namely the relationship between the source and target texts within a functionalist framework.

Intertextual and Intratextual Coherence In terms of Skopostheorie, the viability of the brief depends on the circum- stances of the target culture, not on the source culture. Since we have defined translation as a translational action involving a source text, the source is usually part of the brief.

The meaning or function of a text is not something inherent in the linguistic signs; it cannot simply be extracted by anyone who knows the code. A text is made meaningful by its receiver and for its receiver.

Different receivers or even the same receiver at differ- ent times find different meanings in the same linguistic material offered by the text. Nord b Vermeer from which each receiver selects the items they find interesting and important. Reiss and Vermeer ff. This concept does not allow us to speak of the meaning of the source text being transferred to the target receivers.

Guided by the translation brief, the translator selects certain items from the source-language offer of informa- tion originally meant for source-culture addressees and processes them in order to form a new offer of information in the target language, from which the target-culture addressees can in turn select what they consider to be meaningful in their own situation.

In these terms, the translation process is irreversible. What the translator can do, and should do, is to produce a text that is at least likely to be meaningful to target-culture receivers.

This means the receiver should be able to understand it; it should make sense in the communicative situation and cul- ture in which it is received cf. A communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. Vermeer [ 8] However, since a translation is an offer of information about a preceding offer of information, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text.

One possible kind of intertextual coherence could be a maximally faithful imitation of the source text. But this too is a goal in itself. Indeed, it is by definition probably the goal that most literary translators traditionally set them- selves. If the Skopos requires a change of function, the standard will no longer be intertextual coherence with the source text but adequacy or appropriateness with regard to the Skopos Reiss and Vermeer And if the Skopos demands intratextual incoher- ence as in the theatre of the absurd , the standard of intratextual coherence is no longer valid.

The Skopos or sub-Skopos of such smaller units may be different from that of other segments or the text as a whole. Vermeer a : Culture is whatever one has to know, master or feel in order to judge whether or not a particular form of behaviour shown by members of a community in their various roles conforms to general expectations, and in order to behave in this community in accordance with general expectations unless one is prepared to bear the consequences of unaccepted behaviour.

And every indivi dual is an element in a system of space-time coordinates. If this is accepted, transcultural action or communication across culture barriers has to take account of cul- tural differences with regard to behaviour, evaluation and communicative situations cf.

A cultureme is a social phenomenon of a culture X that is regarded as relevant by the members of this culture and, when compared with a corresponding social phenomenon in a culture Y, is found to be specific to culture X.

Vermeer and Witte A culture-specific phenomenon is thus one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared. This does not mean that the phenomenon exists only in that particular cul- ture. The same phenomenon might be observable in cultures other than the two in question. Translating means comparing cultures. A foreign culture can only be perceived by means of comparison with our own culture, the culture of our primary enculturation cf.

Witte There can be no neutral standpoint for comparison. Everything we observe as being different from our own culture is, for us, specific to the other culture. The concepts of our own culture will thus be the touchstones for the perception of otherness. Further, our attention tends to focus on phenomena that are either different from our own culture where we had expected similarity or similar to our own culture where difference had been expected.

If every action is to be seen in the context of a specific culture, this applies to translation as well. We may thus assume there are various cul- ture-specific concepts of what constitutes translation or a translational action. This point will be taken up in the next chapter.

Adequacy and Equivalence When presenting an offer of information the source-text author takes ac- count of the presumed interests, expectations, knowledge and situational constraints of the source-culture addressees.

Even if a source text is pro- duced specifically for translation purposes it may be assumed that the author has some kind of source-culture addressees in mind, since source-culture text producers by definition lack all the necessary knowledge of the target culture. In the case of a translation, the translator is a real receiver of the source text who then proceeds to inform another audience, located in a situation under target-culture conditions, about the offer of information made by the source text.

These assumptions will obviously be different from those made by the original author, because source- text addressees and target-text addressees belong to different cultures and language communities. This means the translator cannot offer the same amount and kind of information as the source-text producer. What the trans- lator does is offer another kind of information in another form cf. Reiss and Vermeer But does it negate equivalence entirely?

A certain answer may be found in the work of Reiss. He als o cites the following definition by Even-Zohar: An adequate translation is a translation which realizes in the target language the textual relationships of a source text with no breach of its own [basic] linguistic system.

This is the sense that Reiss makes use of. Reiss [] makes a distinction between the concept of equivalence used in comparative linguistics which studies langues or language-systems and the notion of textual equivalence used in translation studies which focuses on parole or speech acts. Parole- orientation means the translator has to take account of the way linguistic signs are used by communicative agents in culture-bound situations.

For example, equivalence at word rank does not imply textual equivalence, nor does equivalence at text rank automatically lead to lexical or syntactic equivalence.

The Skopos of the translation determines the form of equivalence required for an adequate translation. Example: For a word-for-word translation, where the purpose is a faithful reproduction of the words and structures of the source text, the translator chooses, one by one, the target-language words and structures correspond- ing exactly to those of the source-language with regard to meaning and, if possible, style.

This is an adequate translation, which requires equivalence only on the ranks of words and syntactic structures. Reiss [] For Reiss, the generic concept is adequacy, not equivalence. Equivalence may be one possible aim when translating but it is not held to be a transla- tion principle valid once and for all cf.

Reiss and Vermeer f. Between the resulting text in L2 the target- language text and the source text in L1 the source-language text there exists a relationship which can be designated as a translational, or equivalence relation. French translation: La vie, vaut-elle la peine? German translation: Ist das Leben lebenswert? The French and German translations can be considered functional equiva- lents of the English original because they are apt to fulfil the same communicative function a play on words in their respective culture com- munities.

The pun is based on the structural properties of each language: homonymy in the case of liver in English, homophony between foi faith and foie liver in French, and similarity of form between lebenswert worth living and Leberwerte liver count in German.

Equivalence here is thus not at word level. According to Reiss, text typologies help the translator specify the appro- priate hierarchy of equivalence levels needed for a particular translation Skopos cf. Like several other German lin- guists and translation scholars, Reiss [] distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types Texttypen are classified according to the dominant communicative function basically informative, expressive or operative ; on the other, text genres or varieties Textsorten are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements.

The typology will be briefly summarized in the following paragraphs for more details see Nord bff. In informative texts the main function is to inform the reader about ob- jects and phenomena in the real world. The choice of linguistic and stylistic forms is subordinate to this function. In expressive texts the informative aspect is complemented or even over- ruled by an aesthetic component.

The stylistic choices made by the author contribute to the meaning of the text, producing an aesthetic effect on the reader.

This effect has to be taken into account in translation. If the target text is meant to belong to the same category as the source which, for exam- ple, is not the case in bilingual editions of poetry the translator of an expressive text should attempt to produce an analogous stylistic effect. In this case, stylistic choices in translation are naturally guided by those made in the source text.

In operative texts both content and form are subordinate to the extralinguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. In her first publications on text typology and translation, Reiss estab- lished a general correlation between text type and translation method.

Within the framework of Skopostheorie, however, this correlation is restricted to the special case of functional invariance between source and target text.

Each text type is assumed to include various text genres, but one text genre such as letters does not necessarily correlate with just one text type: a love letter may be of the expressive type, a business letter would be in- formative, whereas a letter requesting help would belong to the operative type.

Since text genres are characterized by conventional features, their clas- sification plays an important role in functional translation.

The importance of conventions will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapter. Functionalism in Translator Training Functionalist approaches have been developed with an orientation toward translator training, and this is still one of the main fields in which they are most useful.

Of course, teachers who have been trained as translators or who have worked in professional envi- ronments usually know that different contexts call for different translation solutions; they have an intuitive awareness of functionalism. In her translation-oriented text typology, Katharina Reiss set out from the hypothesis that the decisive factor in translation was the dominant com- municative function of the source text. It nevertheless seems to make more sense to use the intended communi- cative function of the target text as a guideline.

This has been found to be quite a useful rule in the translation process. Of course, the actual translations it leads to may not be radically new or different, since the rule can actually justify translation strat- egies as old as those proposed by Cicero, Jerome or Luther. After these basic considerations we will look at the practice of translator- training itself, asking how the acquisition of translational competence can be guided by means of appropriate translation briefs, source-text analysis and a systematic approach to translation problems.

We will also consider what translation units the translator has to focus on. A Translation-Oriented Model of Text Functions Various models of text function could serve as points of departure for translator training. The model proposed here is meant to be no more than an example.

Its main advantages are that it is simple enough to be used in class and it has a clear focus on translation. These four basic types of function can be broken down into various sub-functions. We will now briefly define and describe these functions and sub-functions, focusing on the way they are represented in texts and how they may concern specific translation problems.

The Referential Function in Translation The referential function of an utterance involves reference to the objects and phenomena of the world or of a particular world, perhaps a fictional one. It may be analyzed according to the nature of the object or referent concerned. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver for exam- ple, a traffic accident the text function may consist in informing the reader; if the referent is a language or a specific use of language, the text function may be metalinguistic; if the referent is the correct way of handling a wash- ing machine or of bottling fruit, the text function may be directive; if it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn for example, geography the func- tion may be didactic.

Of course, this list of sub-functions cannot pretend to be exhaustive. Example: Directions for Bottling Fruit 1. Place clean, warm jars in a large bowl of boiling water. Pack the jars firmly with fruit to the very top, tapping jars on a folded cloth or the palm of the hand to ensure a tight pack.

Certain references are presumed to be familiar to the receivers and are thus not mentioned explicitly. The referential function is oriented toward objects in real or fictitious worlds.

To carry out the referential function, the receiver must be able to coordinate the message with their model of the particular world involved. Since world models are determined by cultural perspectives and traditions, receivers in the source culture may interpret the referential function differ- ently to those in the target culture. This gives rise to significant translation problems. Clearly, the referential function depends on the comprehensibility of the text. The function poses problems when source and target readers do not share the same amount of previous knowledge about the objects and phe- nomena referred to, as is often the case with source-culture realities or realia.

The first is spoken The second tone rises. I think of calling to shore while wading into the waters of Maine. The third tone dips and rises. The fourth is like the shuttlecock in badminton, struck midair and driven downward. It may be subdivided according to what is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions for example, in an interjection we may speak of an emotive sub-function; if what is expressed is an evalu- ation perhaps a government decision the sub-function will be evaluative.

Another sub-function might be irony. Of course, a particular text can be designed to carry out a combination of several functions or subfunctions. The expressive function is sender-oriented.

However, in the standard form of intercultural interaction the sender belongs to the source culture and the receiver belongs to the target culture. Since value systems are conditioned by cultural norms and traditions, the value system of the source-text author may be different from that of the target-culture receivers.

This means that an expressive function verbalized in the source text has to be interpreted in terms of the source-culture value system. Many qualities have different connotations in two different cultures, as can be observed in national stereotypes. Example: In India if a man compares the eyes of his wife to those of a cow, he expresses admiration for their beauty.

In Germany, though, a woman would not be very pleased if her husband did the same. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity, their secret desires. If we want to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. Yet the function may also be achieved indirectly through linguistic or stylistic devices that point to a referential or expressive function, such as superlatives, adjectives or nouns expressing positive values.

Nord ff. The appellative function is receiver-oriented. This means the appellative function will not work if the receiver cannot cooperate.

The principle becomes particularly obvious in the case of exam- ples, metatextual allusions, metaphors or comparisons as in the cases of poetic appellative function given above.

The important point is that he felt as if he had to whistle or to recite some well-known or ceremo- nious text with his mouth full of something that made it difficult to do so.

The Phatic Function in Translation The phatic function aims at establishing, maintaining or ending contact be- tween sender and receiver. Dabei wollen wir Ihnen, lieber Gast, mit dieser Hotelliste behilflich sein The purpose is simply to establish a good- humoured, friendly atmosphere.

The English translation, however, does not really serve the intended purpose. That is why we hope that this Hotel List will be of service to you for you stay in Bremen. The phatic function thus largely depends on the conventionality of its form. The more conventional the lin- guistic form, the less notice we take of it. The problem is that a form that is conventional in one culture may be unconventional in another.

Here conventionality of form also plays an im- portant part. Thi s example shows that culture-specificity may occur even within one language area.

Except for purely phatic expressions or utterances, texts are rarely mono- functional. As a rule we find hierarchies of functions that can be identified by analyzing verbal or non-verbal function markers.

A Functional Typology of Translations As we have seen, different communicative functions may require different translation strategies. If the purpose of the translation is to keep the function of the text invariant, function markers often have to be adapted to target- culture standards.

On the other hand, source-culture function markers that are exactly reproduced in the target text might induce the target receivers to assign a different function to the target text. Where the source text is appellative, the target text may inform about an appeal; where the source text refers to something that is familiar to its readers, the target text may refer to something unfamiliar; where the source text establishes contact in a conventional way, the target text may strike the receiver as strange.

By definition, such a proverb reproduces a widely known experience. The sentence thus has no informative value for German readers; it is a conventional introductory peg. This will strike Spanish and Portuguese readers as rat her odd be- cause they have never heard this saying before. The translations thus lack intratextual coherence for these receivers. Functionality simply means translators should be aware of these aspects and take them into consideration in their decisions.

On the one hand, a translation is a text which is intended to function for the target receivers and, as such, may be intended for any communicative function. On the other, a translation is a kind of target-culture representation or substitute for a source-culture text. As such, it may carry out quite different functions with regard to the source. A number of translation scholars have tried to systematize these consid- erations by establishing a typology of translations.

Here I will only mention three approaches, all of which have a clear functional orientation. Covert and Overt Translations House House ff. Subscribing to an equivalence-based concept of translation, House links her translation types to the nature of the source text ST : In an overt translation, the ST is tied in a specific way to the source language community and culture; the ST is specifically directed at source language addressees but is also pointing beyond the source language community A covert translation is thus a translation whose ST is not specifically addressed to a target culture audience, i.

She thus seeks a target text whose linguistic form does not betray its transla- tional origin and serves the same communicative purposes as the original, being at the same time its perfect equivalent syntactically, semantically and pragmatically cf. Moreover, their notions are onl y restricted versions of a general concept of translatability because they always have some specified adequacy conditions which are postulated as the only proper ones, if not disguised as the only possible ones.

Toury ; emphasis in the original Documentary vs Instrumental Translation Nord Trying to combine the considerations brought forward by House and Reiss, I have presented a more elaborate translation typology based on strictly functionalist terms see Nord , less elaborately in Nord [] f. This involves making a distinction between the function of the translation process and the function of the target text as the result of this process. In this regard, we find two basic types of translation processes.

The first aims at producing in the target language a kind of document of certain aspects of a communicative interaction in which a source-culture sender communicates with a source-culture audience via the source text under source-culture conditions.

The second aims at producing in the target lan- guage an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source-culture sender and a target-culture audience, using certain aspects of the source text as a model. The t arget text, in this case, is a text about a text, or about one or more particular aspects of a text.

There are various forms of documentary translation, all focusing on different aspects of the source text. If a documentary translation focuses on the morphological, lexical or syntactic features of the source-language system as present in the source text, we may speak of a word-for-word or interlinear translation.

Apart from language classes, this kind of translation is often used for reported speech of foreign politicians in newspaper articles, in the translation of literal quotations in scholarly literature or, in combination with word-for- word methods, in intercultural studies referring to a language not familiar to the readers. The following example reproduces the excuse of a South African Sotho speaker who uses his left hand to pass something on to another person.

This form is used frequently in the trans- lation of ancient texts such as Homer , in Bible translation or in translations from distant cultures.

In the following example taken from the English trans- lation of a contemporary Indonesian novel, the names of historical personalities or realities of the source culture are explained in a glossary at the end of the book.

Javanese prince who led a five-year holy war against the Dutch between and We may then speak of a foreignizing or exoticizing translation. The translation is documentary in that it changes the communicative function of the source text. What is appellative in the source text for example, reminding the readers of their own world becomes informative for target readers showing what the source culture is like.

The text cannot have the same function for European readers, who will read the text as a kind of information about an exotic country. That is, there is no direct communicative contact between the author and the target audience. The target audience plays the part of an observer listening to the conversation of two strange parties. Instrumental Forms of Translation The result of an instrumental translation is a text that may achieve the same range of functions as an original text.

If the target-text function is the same as that of the source text we can speak of an equifunctional translation; if there is a difference between source and target text functions we would have a heterofunctional translation; and if the literary status of the target text within the target-culture text corpus corresponds to the literary status the original has in the source-culture text corpus, we could talk about a ho- mologous translation.

We will now explain each of these three types. Equifunctional translations are found in the area of technical texts, com- puter manuals and other pragmatic texts such as instructions for use, recipes, tourist information texts and information on products. It should be noted, however, that there is no universal rule that all technical texts must be translated instrumentally. Example: Equifunctional translations of orders: Zutritt verboten!

No entry. Prohibido entrar. In a homologous translation the tertium comparationis between the source and the target text is a certain status within a corpus or system, mostly with respect to literary or poetic texts.

Here the target text might be supposed to represent the same, or a homologous, degree of originality as the original with regard to the respective culture-specific corpora of texts. This would mean, for example, that Greek hexameter is not translated by English hex- ameter but by blank verse or another metre as common as the hexameter verse was in ancient Greek poetry.

Bassnett In this, they are like interlinear translations, which are located, as it were, at the other end of a broad scale of different relationships between source and target texts.

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